Hostile spy agencies are now as focused on infiltrating western universities and companies as they are on doing so to governments, according to the former head of Canada’s intelligence service.

David Vigneault warned that a recent “industrial-scale” attempt by China to steal new technologies showed the need for increased vigilance from academics.

"The frontline has moved, from being focused on government information to private sector innovation, research innovation and universities,” he told the Guardian in his first interview since leaving the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS), which is part of the “Five Eyes” intelligence sharing alliance with the US, UK, Australia and New Zealand.

Vigneault said China’s leadership had been on a long programme of military regeneration after being horrified by how swiftly the US army took over Iraq in 2003.

Beijing decided to invest in “asymmetric capabilities” and steal as much technical knowledge as possible from the west.